On-Line
Resources
These resources are intended to give you
additional information on learning strategies and media delivery
options. We hope you find them useful!
Index of learning strategy links:
- Lecture practices
- Group discussion triggers
- Thoughtful questions
- Reflective responses to elarner contributions
- Rewarding learner participation
- Active learning strategies
- Cooperative group assignments
- Goals to grades connections
- Modeling
- Double loop feedback
- Climate setting
- Fostering learner self-responsibility
About TIP--WWW Version 1.1
The Theory Into Practice (TIP) database
contains descriptions of 50 theories relevant to human learning
and instruction. Each description includes the following sections:
overview, scope/application, example, principles, and references.
Relationships between theories are identified by highlighted text
within articles. These relationships can be connections between
specific theories or to concepts that underly a number of theories.
The theories are also indexed according to content domain and
type of lea rning.
- ACT*
(J. Anderson) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/9.htm
ACT* distinguishes among three types of memory structures: declarative,
procedural and working memory.
- Adult Learning Theory (P.
Cross) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/10.htm
Cross (1981) presents the Characteristics of Adults as Learners
(CAL) model in the context of her analysis of lifelong learning
programs.
- Algo-Heuristic Theory (L.
Landa) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/11.htm
Landa's theory is concerned with identifying mental processes
-- conscious and especially unconscious -- that underlie expert
learning, thinking and performance in any area.
- Andragogy
(M. Knowles) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/12.htm
Knowles' theory of andragogy is an attempt to develop a theory
specifically for adult learning.
- Anchored Instruction
(J. Bransford & the CTGV) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/13.htm
Anchored instruction is a major paradigm for technology-based
learning
- Aptitude-Treatment Interaction
(L. Cronbach & R. Snow) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/14.htm
Concept that some instructional strategies (treatments) are more
or
less effective for particular individuals depending upon their
specific abilities.
- Cognitive Dissonance Theory
(L. Festinger) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/15.htm
A tendency for individuals to seek consistency among their cognitions
(i.e., beliefs, opinions). When there is an inconsistency between
attitudes or behaviors
(dissonance), something must change to eliminate the dissonance.
- Cognitive Flexibility Theory
(R. Spiro) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/16.htm
Focuses on the nature of learning in complex and ill-structured
domains.
- Component Display Theory
(M.D. Merrill) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/17.htm
Classifies learning along two dimensions: content (facts, concepts,
procedures, and principles) and performance (remembering, using,
generalities).
- Conditions of Learning
(R. Gagne) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/18.htm
Gagne identifies five major categories of learning: verbal information,
intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills, and attitudes.
- Connectionism
(E. Thorndike) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/19.htm
Learning
is the result of associations forming between stimuli and responses.
- Constructivist Theory
(J. Bruner) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/20.htm
Learning is an active process in which learnersconstruct new ideas
or concepts based upon their current/past knowledge.
- Contiguity Theory (E.
Guthrie) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/21.htm
Specifies that "a combination of stimuli which has accompanied
a movement will on its recurrence tend to be followed by that
movement".
- Conversation Theory
(G. Pask) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/22.htm
Attempts to
explain learning in both living organisms and machines.
- Criterion Referenced Instruction
(R. Mager) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/23.htm
A comprehensive set of methods for the design and delivery of
training programs. Some of the critical aspects include: (1) goal/task
analysis -- to identify what needs to be learned, (2) performance
objectives -- exact specification of the outcomes to be accomplished
and how they are to be evaluated (the criterion), (3) criterion
referenced testing -- evaluation of learning in terms of the knowledge/skills
specified in the o bjectives, (4) development of learning modules
tied to specific objectives.
- Double Loop Learning
(C. Argyris) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/24.htm
The focus of the theory is on solving problems that are complex
and ill-structured and which change as problem-solving advances.
- Drive Reduction Theory
(C. Hull) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/25.htm
Hull was interested in studying intervening variables that affected
beh avior such as initial drive, incentives, inhibitors, and prior
training (habit strength).
- Dual Coding Theory (A.
Paivio) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/26.htm
Paivio attempts to give equal weight to verbal and non-verbal
processing.
- Elaboration Theory
(C. Reigeluth) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/27.htm
According to elaboration theory, instruction should be organized
in increasing order of complexity for
optimal learning.
- Experiential Learning
(C. Rogers) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/28.htm
Rogers distinquished two types of learning: cognitive (meaningless)
and experiential (significant). The former corresponds to academic
knowledge such as learning vocabulary or multiplication tables
and the latter refers to applied knowledge such as learni ng about
engines in order to repair a car. The key to the distinction is
that experiential learning addresses the needs and wants of the
learner.
- Functional Context Theory (T.
Sticht) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/29.htm
Stresses the importance of making learning relevant to the experience
of learners and their work context.
- Genetic Epistemology (J.
Piaget) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/30.htm
How knowledge developed in human organisms.
- Gestalt Theory
(M. Wertheimer) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/31.htm
The idea of "grouping", i.e., characteristics of stimuli
cause us to structure or interpret a visual field or problem in
a certain way.
- GOMS
(Card, Moran & Newell) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/32.htm
A theory of the cognitive skills involved in human-computer tasks.
- GPS
(A. Newell & H. Simon) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/33.htm
A theory of human problem solving stated in the form of a simulation
program (Ernst & Newell, 1969; Newell & Simon, 1972) that
attempted to explain all behavior as a function of
memory operations, control processes, and rules.
- Information Pickup Theory (J.J.
Gibson)http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/34.htm
Suggests that perception depends entirely upon information in
the "stimulus array" rather than sensations that are
influenced by cognition.
- Information Processing Theory
(G.A. Miller) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/35.htm
Provided two theoretical ideas that are fundamental to cognitive
psychology and the information processing framework. The first
concept is "chunking" and the capacity of short term
memory. The second concept is TOTE (Test-Operate-Test-Exit)
- Lateral Thinking (E.
DeBono) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/36.htm
The generation of novel solutions to problems. The point of lateral
thinking is that many problems require a different perspective
to solve successfully.
- Levels of Processing
(Craik & Lockhart) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/37.htm An
alternative to theories of memory that postulated separate stages
for sensory, working and long-term memory. According to the levels
of processing framework, stimulus inform ation is processed at
multiple levels simultaneously depending upon its characteristics.
- Mathematical Learning Theory
(R.C. Atkinson) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/38.htm
An attempt to describe and explain behavior in quantitative terms.
- Mathematical Problem Solving
(A. Schoenfeld) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/39.htm
The view that understanding and teaching mathematics should be
approached as
a problem-solving domain.
- Minimalism (J.
M. Carroll) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/40.htm
a framework for the design of instruction, especially training
materials for computer users.
- Modes of Learning
(D. Rumelhart & D. Norman) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/41.htm
proposed that there are three modes of learning: accretion, structuring
and tuning. Accretion is the addition of new knowledge to existing
memory. Structuring involves the formation of new conceptual structures
or schema. Tuning is the adjustment of knowledge to a specific
task usually through practice.
- Multiple Intelligences
(H. Gardner) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/42.htm
The theory of multiple intelligences suggests that there are a
number of distinct forms of intelligence that each individual
possesses in varying degrees
- Operant Conditioning (B.F.
Skinner) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/43.htm
Is based upon the idea that learning is a function of change in
overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's
response to events (stimuli) that occur in the
environment. A response produces a consequence such as defining
a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular
Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the
individual is conditioned to respond.
- Originality (I.
Maltzman) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/44.htm
Studies that demonstrated that originality could be increased.
- Phenomenonography
(F. Marton & N. Entwistle) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/45.htm
Focuses on the experience of learning from the student's perspective
and is based upon a phenomenological approach to research.
- Repair Theory
(K. VanLehn) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/46.htm
An attempt to explain how people learn procedural skills with
particular attention to how and
why they make mistakes (i.e., bugs).
- Script Theory (R.
Schank) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/47.htm
The central focus of Schank's theory has been the structure of
knowledge, especially in the context of
language understanding.
- Sign Theory
(E. Tolman) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/48.htm
According to Tolman's theory of sign learning, an organism learns
by pursuing signs to a goal, i.e., learning is acquired through
meaningful behavior.
- Situated Learning (J.
Lave) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/49.htm
Lave argues that learning as it normally occurs is a function
of the activity, context, and culture in which it
occurs (i.e., it is situated). This contrasts with most classroom
learning activities which involve knowledge which is abstract
and out of context.
- Soar
(A. Newell et al.) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/50.htm
Soar is an architecture for human cognition expressed in the form
of a production system.
- Social Development (L.
Vygotsky) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/51.htm
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development
of cognition.
- Social Learning Theory
(A. Bandura) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/52.htm
Emphasizes the importance of observing and modeling the behaviors,
attitudes, and emotional reactions of others.
- Stimulus Sampling Theory (W.
Estes) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/53.htm
An attempt to develop a statistical explanation for learning phenomena.
- Structural Learning Theory
(J. Scandura) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/54.htm
According to structural learning theory, what is learned are rules
which consist of a domain, range, and procedure.
- Structure of Intellect
(J. Guilford) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/55.htm
Intelligence is viewed as comprising operations, contents, and
products.
- Subsumption Theory
(D. Ausubel) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/56.htm
Concerned with how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful
material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting (in contrast
to theories developed in the context of laboratory experiments).
- Symbol Systems
(G. Salomon) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/57.htm
Is intended to explain the effects of media on learning.
- Triarchic Theory (R.
Sternberg) http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/58.htm
Consists of three subtheories: (i) the componential, (ii) the
experiential, (iii) the contextual. A complete explanation of
intelligence entails the interaction of these three subtheories
- Aviation
- Computers
- Concepts
- Decision Making
- Engineering
- Language
- Management
- Mathematics
- Medicine
- Military
- Perception
- Problem Solving
- Procedures
- Reading
- Reasoning
- Sales
- Sensory-Motor
- Troubleshooting
- Anxiety
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/77.htm
Anxiety can be an inhibiting factor in learning and therefore
has received considerable attention.
- Arousal
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/78.htm
The concept of arousal has been a major aspect of many learning
theories and is closely related to other important concepts such
as anxiety, attention, and motivation.
- Attention
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/79.htm
Attention is a major topic of study in psychology and is closely
related to the subject of consciousness which was the principal
focus of the early psychologists such as Wilhelm Wundt and William
James.
- Attitudeshttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/80.htm
Attitudes are usually defined as a disposition or tendency to
respond positively or negatively towards a certain thing (idea,
object, person, situation).
- Cognitive/Learning Styles
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/81.htm
Cognitive styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes
information
- Creativity http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/82.htm
There have been many different approaches to the study of creativity.
The relationship between creativity and intelligence has been
always been a central concern of psychology (Guilford, 1950).
- Feedback/Reinforcementhttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/83.htm
Feedback and reinforcement are two of the most pivotal concepts
in learning. Feedback involves providing learners with information
about their responses whereas reinforcement affects the tendency
to make a specific response again.
- Imagery
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/84.htm
Imagery is a critical issue in terms of memory structures and
processes
- Intelligence
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/85.htm
Throughout the history of psychology, intelligence has been a
critical concept. In early theories of psychology, intelligence
(i.e., "thinking ability") accounted for how well and
how much an individual learned.
- Learning Strategies
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/86.htm
Learning strategies refer to methods that students use to learn.
- Mastery
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/87.htm
Mastery learning suggests that the focus of instruction should
be the time required for different students to learn the same
material.
- Memory
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/88.htm
Memory is one of the most important concepts in learning; if things
are not remembered, no learning can take place.
- Mental Models
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/89.htm Representations
of reality that people use to understand specific phenomena
- Metacognitionhttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/90.htm
Thinking about thinking
- Motivationhttp://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/91.htm
Motivation is a piviotal concept in most theories of learning.
It is closely related to arousal, attention, anxiety, and feedback/reinforcement.
- Productions
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/92.htm
Production rules are a primary component of many contemporary
computer models of cognition (e.g., ACT, GPS, Soar).
- Schema
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/93.htm
Memory takes the form of schema which provide a mental framework
for understanding and remembering information.
- Sequencing of Instruction
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/94.htm
One of the most important issues in the application of learning
theory is sequencing of instruction. The order and organization
of learning activities affects the way information is processed
and retained (Glynn & DiVesta, 1977; Lorch & Lorch, 1985;
Van P atten, Chao, & Reigeluth, 1986)
- Transfer
http://www.lincoln.ac.nz/educ/tip/95.htm
One of the most fundamental concepts in learning is transfer,
i.e., the ability to apply something learned in one situation
to another setting.
- Class management
- Enhancing interactivity
- Design of materials
- Use of existing materials
- Other instructional technologies
- Group Discussion
- Buzz Groups
- Panel Discussion
- Sysmposium Discussion
- Debate Discussion
- Experience Discussion
- Concentric Circle
- Reaction Sheet
- Role Playing
Auxiliary Materials for The
School in Democratic Society: A Course Plan for Poland's Future
Teachers
http://civnet.org/teaching/methods/syllabs2.htm
- Simulation
- Role Playing
- The Case Study
Jigsaw using newspapers
Using the jigsaw as a discussion tool
Mind Maps, invented by Tony Buzan, diagram
the structure of ideas in an
associative manner which is more representitive of how ideas are
stored in the brain. This site also includes a three-step creative
writing process.
Using the Web and networked computers to
facilitate a distance education research project through the use
of the jigsaw technique.
Why should you go somewhere and pay to
listen to someone tell you stories? Didn't your parents tell great
stories when you were a kid -- and they were free. When you go
out you want to be entertained, right? Well, be sure to read this
article for some answers.
In my page, I am dealing with creativity,
ideation, and problem solving as relations to a whole and
not as individual subjects
Written by Kate Janac,
Doug Kipperman,
and Deb Linder. Last updated May 3, 1997
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